LIBRARY 

UNITED STATES BUREAU OF EDUCATION, 

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR. 

Entry Catalogue Number 



C/ass Jt 



1 



'RESEN'TE'D BY 



With the respects of 

E. Sfeiger. 



THE 






SCIENCE AND ART OF EDUCATION 

-AN INTRODUCTORY LECTURE - 



PRINCIPLES OP THE SOIEN 

-A PAPEk- 



UCATION 



V 




JOSEPH PAYNE, 



LATE PROFESSOR OF THE SCIENCE AND ART OF EDUCATION 

TO THE COLLEGE OF PRECEPTORS, 

AT LONDON. 




NEW YORK, 

E. STEIGEE, 

1876. 















V 



PREFACE. 



The following Lecture was delivered at the College of Pre- 
ceptors, Queen Square, Bloomsbury, on the 20th of January 
1874. The Chair was taken by the Rev. Dr. Abbott, Head- 
Master of the City of London School. In the course of his 
remarks at the close of the Lecture, besides expressing his 
general sympathy with the views I had brought forward, Dr. 
Abbott also expressed his opinion that there was a certain 
degree of novelty in the plan by which it was proposed that 
the Science of Education, with its correlative Art, should be 
studied by Teachers. I have therefore thought it worth while, 
by the publication of the Lecture, to give those who are inter- 
ested in Education generally, and Teachers especially, an 
opportunity of forming their own judgment on the value of 
my theory; and in order to furnish them with some idea of the 
nature and scope of the "Training Course of Lectures and 
Lessons on the Science, Art, and History of Education," 
which I delivered last year, and am repeating at the present 
time, I subjoin the "Syllabus/' 

1 ' The object of the entire Course is to show that there are 
Principles of Education, on which, in order to be truly efficient, 
Practice must be founded; or, in other words, that there is a 
Science of Education, in reference to which the Art must be 
conducted, and the value of its processes tested. 

"In the First Division of the Course, the Science of Edu- 
cation will be built up on an investigation into the nature of 
the being to be educated, and into the phenomena which 
indicate and result in bodily, intellectual, and moral growth. 
This investigation involves an analysis of the organic life of 
the child, beginning with his earliest manifestations of Feel- 
ing, Will, and Intellect. Such manifestations are the result 



— IV — 

of external agencies which develop the child's native powers. 
This development constitutes his natural education, which, as 
being carried on without formal means and appliances, resolves 
itself into self-education. The principles underlying the proc- 
esses by which the child is stimulated to educate himself con- 
stitute the Science of Natural Education, which is, therefore, 
the model or type of Formal Education. 

"In the Second Division of the Course, the application of 
the principles or Science, to the practice or Art of Education, 
will be treated, the difficulties in the way of their strict appli- 
cation considered, and suggestions offered for meeting them. 
The educator will be shown to be an artist accomplishing his 
end through scientific means. The ordinary methods of general 
education, and those of teaching different subjects, will be 
critically examined, and the principles involved in them sub- 
jected to the test of the Science of Education. 

"In the Third Division of the Course, a sketch of the His- 
tory of Education from the earliest times, and among different 
nations, will be given. With this will be connected a detailed 
account of the Theories and Methods of the most eminent 
Writers on Education and Teachers in all ages — Aristotle, 
Plato, Quint ilian, Erasmus, the Jesuits, Ascham, Ratich, 
Comenius, Locke, Rousseau, Basedow, Pestalozzi, De Fellen- 
berg, Jacotot, Frobel, Arnold, Herbert Spencer, &c, — and 
the conformity or disagreement of their Theories and Methods 
with the Scientific Principles of Education examined and ap- 
preciated." 

JOSEPH PAYNE. 

4, KlLDAKE GAKDENS, W. *, 

Feb. 18th, 1874. 



I have been impelled to reproduce the following lecture both on account of the 
paramount importance of the matter treated and the exhaustive, masterly way in 
which the subject is handled. I present it to the American public in the hope that it 
may produce good fruit. Unfortunately for the cause of education, the gifted author 
died a few months ago, a victim to his unwearying and excessive toil in this his chosen 
field. That his physical powers should have given way will be no surprise to those 
able to appreciate the style in which he worked, as evidenced in the synoptical paper 
hereto appended, entitled " Principles of the Science of Education." 

E. Steig-er. 

New York, August, 1876. 



THE SCIENCE AND ART OF EDUCATION. 



At the beginning of last year I delivered in this room a 
lecture intended to inaugurate the Course of Lectures and 
Lessons on the Science and Art of Education, which the Coun- 
cil of the College of Preceptors had appointed me to under- 
take. The experiment then about to be tried was a new one 
in this country; for, although we have had for some years 
Colleges intended to prepare Elementary Teachers for their 
work, nothing of the kind existed for Middle Class and Higher 
Teachers. As I stated in that Inaugural Lecture, the Council 
of the College of Preceptors, after waiting in vain for action 
on the part of the Government or of the Universities, and 
attempting, also in vain, to obtain the influential co-operation 
of the leading scholastic authorities in aid of their object,* 
resolved to make a beginning themselves. They, therefore, 
adopted a scheme laid before them by one of their colleagues 
— a lady — and offered the first Professorship of the Science 
and Art of Education to me. 

We felt that some considerable difficulties lay in the way 
of any attempt to realize our intentions. Among these, there 
were two especially on which I will dwell for a few minutes. 
The first was the opinion very generally entertained in this 
country, that there is no Science of Education, that is, that 
there are no fixed principles for the guidance of the Educator's 
practice. It is generally admitted that there is a Science of 
Medicine, of Law, of Theology; but it is not generally ad- 
mitted that there is a corresponding Science of Education. 



* It is pleasant to record the interesting fact, that at the last meeting 
of the Head Masters' Committee, not only was the principle of a special 
professional training for teachers theoretically admitted, but steps were taken 
for realizing it. The effective execution of this design will, of course, involve 
a study of the Science as well as the Art of Education. 
1 



2 *-. 

The opinion that there is no such Science was, as we know, 
courageously uttered by Mr. Lowe, but we also know that 
there are hundreds of cultivated professional men in England, 
who silently maintain it, and are practically guided by it. 
These men, many of them distinguished proficients in the Art 
of teaching, if you venture to suggest to them that there must 
be a correlated Science which determines — whether they are 
conscious of it or not — the laws of their practice, generally 
by a significant smile let you know their opinion both of the 
subject and of yourself. If they deign to open their lips at all, 
it is to mutter something about ' 'Pedagogy, " * 'frothy stuff," 
"mere quackery,"* or to tell you point-blank that if there is 
such a Science, it is no business of theirs; they do very well 
without it. This opinion, which they, no doubt, sincerely 
entertain, is, however, simply the product of thoughtlessness 
on their part. If they had carefully considered the subject in 
relation to themselves— if they had known the fact that the 
Science which they disclaim or denounce has long engaged the 
attention of hundreds of the profoundest thinkers of Germany 
— many of them teachers of at least equal standing to their own 
— who have reverently admitted its pretensions, and devoted 
their great powers of mind to the investigation of its laws, 
they would, at least, have given you a respectful hearing. But 
great, as we know, is the power of ignorance, and it will 
prevail — for a time. There are, however, even now, hopeful 
signs which indicate a change of public opinion. Only a week 
ago, a leader in The Times called attention to Sir Bartle Frere's 
conviction expressed in one of his lectures in Scotland, that 
"the acknowledged and growing power of Germany is inti- 
mately connected with the admirable education which the great 
body of the German nation are in the habit of receiving." 



* It is remarkable that the dictionary meaning of "quack" is "a boast- 
ful pretender to arts he does not understand, " so that the asserter of prin- 
ciples as the foundation of correct practice is ignorautly denounced as weak 
on the very point which constitutes his strength. One may imagine the 
shouts of laughter with which such a denunciation would be received in an 
assembly of German experts in education. 



The education of which Sir Bartle Frere thus speaks, is the 
direct result of that very science which is so generally un- 
known, and despised, because unknown, by our cultivated men, 
and especially by many of our most eminent teachers. When this 
educated power of Germany, which has already shaken to its 
centre the boasted military reputation of France, does the same 
for our boasted commercial reputation, as Sir Bartle Frere and 
others declare that it is even now doing, and for our boasted 
engineering reputation, as Mr. Mundella predicts it will do, 
unless we look about us in time, the despisers of the Science 
of Education will adopt a different tone, and perhaps confess 
themselves in error, at all events, they will betake themselves 
to a modest and respectful silence. No later back than yester- 
day (January 19. ) The Times contained three letters bearing on 
Sir Bartle Frere's assertion that the increasing commercial 
importance of Germany is due mainly to the excellence of 
German education. One writer refers to the German Real- 
schulen or Thing-Schools and to the High Schools of Com- 
merce, in both of which the practical study of matters bearing 
on real life is conducted. Another writer, an Ex-Chairman of 
the Liverpool Chamber of Commerce, says: "I have no 
hesitation in stating that young Germans make the best busi- 
niss men, and the reason is, that they are usually better 
educated; I mean by this, they have a more thorough educa- 
tion, which imparts to them accuracy and precision. Whatever 
they do, is well and accurately done, no detail is too small 
to escape their attention, and this engenders a habit of 
thought and mind, which in after-life makes them shrewd and 
thorough men of business. I think the maintenance of our 
commercial superiority is very much of a schoolmaster's ques- 
tion." A third writer speaks of the young German clerks sent 
out to the East as ' infinitely superior" in education to the class 
of young men sent out from England, and ends by saying: 
" Whatever be the cause, there can be no question that the 
Germans are outstripping us in the race for commercial supe- 
riority in the far East." 

Some persons, no doubt, will be found to cavil at these 
statements; the only comment, however, I think it necessary to 



_ 4 — 

make is this:— "Germany is a country where the Science of 
Education is widely and profoundly studied, and where the 
Art is conformed to the science." I leave you to draw your 
own inferences. Without, however, dwelling further on this 
important matter, though it is intimately connected with my 
purpose, I repeat that this dead weight of ignorance in the 
public mind respecting the true claims of the Science of Edu- 
cation, constitutes one of the difficulties with which we have had 
to contend. The writer of a leading article in The Times, 
January 10., said emphatically: "Id truth, there is nothing in 
which the mass of Englishmen are so much in need of educa- 
tion as in appreciating the value of Education itself." These 
words contain a pregnant and melancholy truth, which will be 
more and more acknowledged as time moves on. 

But there was another difficulty of scarcely less importance 
with which we had to contend, and this is the conviction enter- 
tained by the general body of teachers that they have nothing 
to learn about Education. We are now descending, be it re- 
membered, from the leaders to the great band of mere follow- 
ers, from the officers of the army to the rank and hie. My 
own experience, it may well be believed, of teachers, has been 
considerable. As the net result of it, I can confidently affirm 
that until I commenced my class in February last, I never 
came in contact with a dozen teachers who were not entirely 
satisfied with their own empirical methods of teaching. To 
what others had written on the principles of Education, — to 
what these had reduced to successful practice,— they were, for 
the most part, profoundly indifferent. To move onward in the 
grooves to which they had boen accustomed in their school- 
days, or if more intelligent, to devise methods of their own, 
without any respect to the experience, however enlightened, 
of others, was, and is, the general practice among teachers. 
For them, indeed, the great educational authorities, whether 
writers or workers, might as well never have existed at all. 
In short, to repeat what I said before, teachers, as a class 
(there are many notable exceptions), are so contented with 
themselves and their own methods of teaching that they com- 
placently believe, and act on the belief, that they have nothing 



at all to learn from the Science and Art of Education; and 
this is much to be regretted for their own sakes, and especially 
for the sake of their pupils, whose educational health and well- 
being lie in their hands. However this may be, the fact is 
unquestionable, that one of the greatest impediments to any 
attempt to expound the principles of Education lies in the un- 
warrantable assumption on the part of the teachers that they 
have nothing to learn on the subject. Here, however, as is 
often the case, the real need for a remedy is in inverse pro- 
portion to the patient's consciousness of the need. The worst 
teachers are generally those who are most satisfied with them- 
selves, and their own small performances. 

The fallacy, not yet displaced from the mind of the public, 
on which this superstructure of conceit is raised, is that ''he 
who knows a subject can teach it." The postulate, that a 
teacher should thoroughly know the subject he professes to 
teach, is by no means disputed, but it is contended that the 
question at issue is to be mainly decided by considerations 
lying on the pupil's side of it. The process of thinking, by 
which the pupil learns, is essentially his own. The teacher 
can but stimulate and direct, he cannot supersede it. He can- 
not do the thinking necessary to gain the desired result for 
his pupil. The problem, then, that he has to solve is how to 
get his pupil to learn; and it is evident that he may know the 
subject without knowing the best means of making his pupil 
know it too, which is the assumed end of all his teaching. He 
may be an adept in his subject, but a novice in the art of 
teaching it— an art which has principles, laws, and processes 
peculiar to itself. 

But, again; a man, profoundly acquainted with a subject, 
may be unapt to teach it by reason of the very height and 
extent of his knowledge. His mind habitually dwells among 
the mountains, and he has, therefore, small sympathy with the 
toiling plodders on the plains below. The difficulties which 
beset their path have long ceased to be a part of his own 
experience. He cannot then easily condescend to their con- 
dition, place himself alongside of them, and force a sympathy 
he cannot naturally feel with their trials and perplexities. 



Both these cases tend to the same issue, and show that it is a 
fallacy to assert that there is any necessary connection between 
knowing a subject and knowing how to teach it. 

Our experiment was commenced on the 6th of February 
last. On the afternoon of that day, only seventeen teachers 
had given in their names as members of the class that was to 
be formed. In the evening, however, to my surprise, I found 
no fewer than fifty-one awaiting the lecture. This number was 
increased in a few weeks to seventy, and on the whole, there 
have been eighty members in the course of the year. Having 
brought our little history down to the commencement of the 
lectures in 1873, I propose to occupy the remainder of our 
time with a brief account of what was intended, and what has 
been accomplished by them. 

Generally speaking, the intention was to show (1) that 
there is a Science of Education, that is, that there are princi- 
ples, derived from the nature of the mind, which furnish laws 
for the educator's guidance; (2) that there is an Art founded 
on the Science, which will be efficient or inefficient in propor- 
tion to the educator's conscious knowledge of its principles. 

It will be, perhaps, remembered by some now present, that 
I gave in my Inaugural Lecture a sketch of the manner in which 
I intended to treat these subjects. As, however, memories 
are often weak, and require to be humored, and as repetition 
is the teacher's sheet-anchor, I may, perhaps, be excused if I 
repeat some of the matter then brought forward, and more 
especially as I may calculate that a large proportion of my 
audience were not present last year. 

I had to consider how I should treat the Science of Educa- 
tion, especially in relation to such a class as I was likely to 
have. It was to be expected that the class would consist of 
young teachers, unskilled in the art of teaching, and perhaps 
even more unskilled in that of thinking. Such, in fact they , for 
the most part, proved to be. Now, the Science of Education is 
a branch of Psychology, and both Education and Psychology, 
as sciences, may be studied either deductively or inductively. 
We may commence with general propositions, and work down- 
ward to the facts they represent, or upward from the facts 



to the general propositions. To students who had been mainly 
occupied with the concrete and practical, it seemed to me 
much better to commence with the concrete and practical; 
witli facts rather than with abstractions. But what facts? 
That was the question. There is no doubt that a given art 
contains in its practice, for eyes that can truly see, the prin- 
ciples which govern its action. The reason for doing may be 
gathered from the doing itself. If, then, we could be quite 
sure beforehand that perfect specimens of practical teaching, 
based on sound principles, were accessible, we might have set 
about studying them carefully, with a view to elicit the prin- 
ciples which underlie the practice, and in this way we might 
have arrived at a Science of Education. But then this in- 
volves the whole question: Who is to guarantee dogmatically 
the absolute soundness of a given method of teaching, and if 
any one comes forward to do this, who is to guarantee the 
soundness of his judgment? It appears, then, that although 
we might evolve the principles of medicine from the general 
practice of medicine, or the principles of engineering from the 
general practice of engineering, we cannot evolve the prin- 
ciples of education from the general practice of education as 
we actually find it. So much of that practice is radically and 
obviously unsound, so little of sequence and co-ordination is 
there in its parts, so aimless generally is its action, that to 
search for the Science of Education in its ordinary present 
practice would be a sheer waste of time. We should find, for 
instance, the same teacher acting one day, and with regard to 
one subject, on one principle, and another day, or with regard 
to another subject, on a totally different principle, all the time 
forgetting that the mind really has but one method of learning 
so as really to know, though multitudes of methods. may be 
framed for giving the semblance of knowing. We see one 
teacher, who is never satisfied until he secures his pupils' 
possession of clear ideas upon a given subject; another, who 
will let them go off with confused and imperfect ideas; and a 
third, who will think his duty done when he has stuffed them 
with mere words— with husks instead of grain. It is then per- 
fectly clear that we cannot deduce the principles of true 



— 8 — 

science from varying practice of this kind; and if we confine 
ourselves to inferences drawn from such practice, we shall 
never know what the Science of Education is. Having thus 
shut ourselves off from dealing with the subject by the high 
a priori method, commencing with abstract principles, and 
also from the unsatisfactory method of inference founded on 
various, but generally imperfect, practice; and being still 
resolved, if possible, to get down to a solid foundation on 
which we might build a fabric of science, we were led to in- 
quire whether any system of education is to be found, constant 
and consistent in its working, by the study of which we might 
reach the desired end. On looking round we saw that there is 
such a system continually at work under our very eyes, — one 
which secures definite results, in the shape of positive knowl- 
edge, and trains to habit the powers by which these results are 
gained^ — which cannot but be consistent with the general 
nature of things, because it is Nature's oivn. Here, then, we 
have what we were seeking for — a system working har- 
moniously and consistently towards a definite end, and secur- 
ing positive results — a system, too, strictly educational, whether 
we regard the development of the faculties employed, or the 
acquisition of knowledge, as accompanying the development — 
a system in which the little child is the pupil and Nature the 
educator. 

Having gained this stand-point, and with it a conviction 
that if we could only understand this great educator's method 
of teaching, and see the true connection between the means 
he employs and the end he attains, we should get a correct 
notion of what is really meant by education; we next inquire, 
"How are we to proceed for this purpose?" The answer is: 
By the method through which other truths are ascertained — 
by investigation. We must do what the chemist, the physician, 
the astronomer do, when they study their respective subjects. 
We must examine into the facts, and endeavor to ascertain, 
first, what they are; secondly, what they mean. The bodily 
growth of the child from birth is, for instance, a fact, which 
we can all observe for ourselves. What does it mean? It 
means that, under certain external influences— such as air, 



— 9 — 

light, food — the child increases in material bulk and in physical 
power; that these influences tend to integration, to the forming 
of a whole; that they are all necessary for that purpose; that 
the withholding of any one of them leads to disintegration or 
breaking up of the whole. But as we continue to observe, we 
see, moreover, evidences of mental growth. We witness the 
birth of consciousness; we see the mind answering, through 
the senses, to the calls of the external world, and giving mani- 
fest tokens that impressions are both received and retained by 
it. The child "takes notice" of objects and actions, manifests 
feelings of pleasure or pain in connection with them, and 
indicates a desire or will to deal in his own way with the 
objects, and to take part in the actions. We see that this 
growth of intellectual power, shown by his increasing ability 
to hold intercourse with tilings about him, is closely connected 
with the growth of his bodily powers, and we derive from our 
observation one important principle of the Science of Educa- 
tion, that mind and body are mutually interdependent, and 
co-operate in promoting growth. 

We next observe that as the baby, under the combined 
influence of air, light, and food, gains bodily strength, he 
augments that strength by continually exercising it; he uses 
the fund he has obtained, and, by using, makes it more. 
Exercise reiterated, almost unremitting; unceasing movement, 
apparently for its own sake, as an end in itself; the jerking 
and wriggling in the mother's arms, the putting forth of his 
hands to grasp at things near him, the turning of the head to 
look at bright objects; this exercise, these movements consti- 
tute his very life. He lives in them, and by them. He is 
urged to exercise by stimulants from without; but the exer- 
cise itself brings pleasure with it (labor ipse voluptas), is 
continued on that account, and ends in increase of power. 
What applies to the body, applies also, by the foregoing prin- 
ciple, to the intellectual powers, which grow with the infant's 
growth, and strengthen with his strength. Our observation 
of these facts furnishes us, therefore, with a second principle 
of education: — Facidty of ivhatever kind grows by exercise. 
Without changing our ground we supplement this principle by 



— 10 — 

another. We see that the great educator who prompts the 
baby to exercise, and connects pleasure with all his voluntary 
movements, makes the exercise effectual for the purpose in 
view by constant reiteration. Perfection in action is secured 
by repeating the action thousands of times. The baby makes 
the same movements over and over again; the muscles and 
the nerves learn to work together, and habit is the result. 
Similarly in the case of the mind, the impressions commu- 
nicated through the organs of sense grow from cloudy to clear, 
from obscure to definite, by dint of endless repetition of the 
functional act. By the observation of these facts we arrive at 
a third principle of education: — Exercise involves repetition, 
which, as regards bodily actions, ends in habits of action, and 
as regards impressions received by the mind, ends in clearness 
of perception. 

Looking still at our baby as he pursues his education, we 
see that this manifold exercise is only apparently an end in 
itself. The true purpose of the teaching is to stimulate the 
pupil to the acquisition of knowledge, and to make all these 
varied movements subservient to that end. This exercise of 
faculty brings the child into contact with the properties of 
matter, initiates him into the mysteries of hard and soft, heavy 
and light, &c, the varieties of form, of round and flat, circular 
and angular, &c, the attractive charms of color. All this is 
knowledge, gained by reiterated exercise of the faculties, and 
stored up in the mind by its retentive power. We recognize 
the baby as a practical enquirer after knowledge for its own 
sake. But we further see him as a discoverer, testing the 
properties of matter by making his own experiments upon it. 
He knocks the spoon against the basin which contains his food: 
he is pleased with the sound produced by his action, and more 
than pleased, delighted, if the basin breaks under the oper- 
ation. He throws his ball on the ground, and follows its revolu- 
tion with his enraptured eye. What a wonderful experiment 
it is ! How charmed he is with the effect he has produced ! 
He repeats the experiment over and over again with unwearied 
assiduity. The child is surely a Newton, or a Faraday, in 
petticoats. No, he is simply one of Nature's ordinary pupils. 



— 11 — 

enquiring after knowledge, and gaining it by his own unaided 
powers. He is teaching himself, under the guidance of a great 
educator. His self-teaching ends in development and growth, 
and it is, therefore, strictly educational in its nature. In view of 
these facts we gain a fourth principle of the Science of Educa- 
tion; — The exercise of the child's own poivers, stimulated but 
not superseded by the educator's interference, ends both in the 
acquisition of knowledge and in the invigoration of the 
powers for further acquisition. 

It is unnecessary to give further illustrations of our method. 
Every one will see that it consists essentially in the obser- 
vation and investigation of facts, the most important of which 
is, that we have before us a pupil going through a definite 
system of education. We are convinced that it is education, 
because it develops faculty, and, therefore, conduces to develop- 
ment and growth. By close observation we detect the method 
of the master, and see that it is a method which repudiates 
cramming rules and definitions, and giving wordy explanations, 
and secures the pupil's utmost benefit from the work by making 
him do it all himself through the exercise of his unaided 
powers.* We thus get a clue to the construction of a Science 



* The Bishop of Exeter, in the admirable address which he lately de- 
livered on the occasion of his presiding at the giving of Prizes to the suc- 
cessful candidates for schools in union with the College of Preceptors, 
confirmed in various ways the principle above laid down. This address 
was delivered since my lecture at the College. It may be found fully re- 
ported in The Educational Times for February. Among other remarks were 
the following: — "We often find that when teachers fancy their pupils have 
obtained a thorough mastery of a subject, they are deceived, because they 
have not noticed that, in almost imperceptible ways, they have been doing 
for the pupil what he ought to be doing for himself. I have repeatedly 
gone into a school, and on examining it, say in arithmetic, have been told by 
the master: "It is very strange that the boys do not know it; I thought they 
knew it thoroughly." I have always asked them this: "When you have 
examined them, have you made them answer for themselves?" And the 
reply has been: "Yes; I have left them with themselves except just the very 
slightest possible help occasionally; just enough to prevent them from 
wandering about." That is the whole thing. That very little help is the 
thing which vitiated the examination altogether; and the test of real 
mastery is that the knowledge shall be produced [and therefore obtained] 



— 12 — 

of Education, to be built up, as it were, on the organized com- 
pound of body and mind, to which we give the name of baby. 
Continuing still our observation of the phenomena it manifests, 
first, in its speechless, and afterwards in its speaking condition, 
we gain other principles of education; and lastly, colligating 
and generalizing our generalizations, we arrive at a definition 
of education as carried on by Nature. This may be roughly ex- 
pressed thus: — Natural Education consists in the development 
and training of the learner's poivers, through influences of 
various kinds, ivhich are initiated by action from without, 
met by corresponding reaction from within. 

Then assuming, as we appear to have a right to do, that 
this natural education should be a model or type of formal 
education, we somewhat modify our definition thus: — 

Education is the development and training of the learner's 
native poivers by means of instruction carried on through 
the conscious and persistent agency of the formal educator, 
and depends upon the established connection betiveen the world 
ivithout and the ivorld within the mind — between the objective 
and the subjt ctive. 

I am aware that this definition is defective, inasmuch as it 
ignores — or appears to ignore— the vast fields of physical and 
moral education. It will, however, serve my present pur- 
pose, which is especially connected with intellectual education. 

Having reached this point, and gained a general notion of 
a Science of Education, we go on to consider the Art of Edu- 
cation, or the practical application of the Science. We are 
thus led to examine the difference between Science and Art, 
and between Nature and Art. Science tells us what a thing 
is, and why it is what it is. It deals, therefore, with the 
nature of the thing, with its relations to other things, and 
consequently with the laws of its being. Art derives its rules 
from this knowledge of the thing and its law of action, and 



without any help at all. When a man or woman in after-life comes to use 
their knowledge, they will find that the knowledge is really of no use unless 
they are able to apply it absolutely without assistance, and without the 
slightest guidance to prevent them falling into the most grievous mistakes." 



— 13 — 

says: "Do this or that with the thing in order to accomplish 
the end you have in view. If you act otherwise with it, you 
violate the laws of its being." Now the rules of Art may be 
carried out blindly or intelligently. If blindly, the worker is 
a mere artisan — an operative who follows routine, whose rule 
is the rule-of-thumb. If intelligently, he is a true artist, who 
not only knows what he is doing, but why this process is right 
and that wrong, and who is furnished with resources suitable 
for guiding normal, and correcting abnormal, action. All the 
operations of the true artist can be justified by reference to 
the principles of Science. But there is also a correlation be- 
tween Nature and Art. These terms are apparently, but not 
really, opposed to each other. Bacon long ago pointed out 
the true distinction when he said: Ars est Homo additus 
Naturce— Art is Nature with the addition of Man — Art is 
Man's work added to (not put in the place of) Nature's work. 
Here then is the synthesis of Nature and Man which justifies us 
in saying that natural education is the type or model of formal, 
or what we usually call, without an epithet, education, and 
that the Art of Teaching is the application by the teacher of 
laws of Science, which he has himself dicovered by investigating 
Nature. This is the key-stone of our position; if this is firm 
and strong, all is firm and strong. Abandon this position, and 
you walk in darkness and doubt, not knowing what you are 
doing or whither you are wandering — at the mercy of every 
wind of doctrine. 

The artist in education, thus equipped, is ready not only to 
work himself, but to judge of the work of others. He sees, for 
instance, a teacher coldly or sternly demanding the attention 
of a little child to some lesson, say in arithmetic. The child has 
never been led up gradually to the point at which he is. He 
has none but confused notions about it. The teacher, without 
any attempt to interest the child, without exhibiting affection 
or sympathy towards him, hastily gives him some technical 
directions, and sends him away to profit by them as he may — 
simply orders him to learn," and leaves him to do so alone. 
Our teacher says: — ' 'This transaction is inartistic. The element 
of humanity is altogether wanting in it. It is not in accor- 



— 14 — 

dance with the Science of Education; it is a violation of the 
Art. The great educator in Ms teaching, presents a motive 
-and an object for voluntary action; and, therefore, excites 
attention towards the object by enlisting the feelings in the 
enquiry. He does not, it is true, show sympathy, because he 
acts by inflexible rules. But the human educator, as an artist, 
is bound not only to excite an interest in the work, but to 
sympathize with the worker. This teacher does neither. His 
practice ought to exemplify the formula, Ars = Natura + 
Homo. He leaves out both Natura and Homo. His Ars, there- 
fore, = 0." 

Another case presents itself. Here the teacher does not 
leave the child alone; on the contrary, is continually by his 
side. At this moment he is copiously "imparting his knowl- 
edge" of some subject to his pupil, whose aspect shows that he 
is not receiving it, and who, therefore, looks puzzled. The 
matter, whatever it is, has evidently little or no relation to the 
actua) condition of the child's mind, in which it finds no links 
of association and produces no intellectual reaction, and which, 
therefore, does not co-operate with the teacher's. He patiently 
endures, however, because he cannot escape from it, the down- 
pouring of the teacher's knowledge; but it is obvious that he 
gains nothing from it. It passes over his mind as water passes 
over a duck's back. The subject of instruction, before un- 
known, remains unknown still. Our artist teacher, lookiug on, 
pronounces that this teaching is inartistic, as not being founded 
on Science. "The efficiency of a lesson is to be proved," he 
says, "by the part taken in it by the pupil; and here the 
teacher does all the work, the pupil does nothing at all. It is 
the teacher's mind, not the learner's, that is engaged in it. 
Our great master teaches by calling into exercise the learners 
powers, not by making a display of his own. The child will 
never learn anything so as to possess it for himself by such 
teaching as this, which accounts the exercise of his own 
faculties as having little or nothing to do with the process of 
learning." 

Once more; our student, informed in the Science of Educa- 
tion, watches a teacher who is giving a lesson on language — 



— 15 — 

Say, on the mother-tongue, This mother-tongue the child 
virtually knows how to use already; and if he has been accus- 
tomed to educated society, speaks and (if he is old enough to 
write) writes it correctly. The teacher puts a book into his 
hand, the first sentence of which is: "English grammar is the 
art of speaking and writing the English language correctly." 
The child does not know what an "art" is, nor what is meant 
by speaking English "correctly." If he is intelligent, he 
wonders whether he speaks it "correctly" or not. As to the 
meaning of "art," he is altogether at sea. The teacher is 
aware of the perplexity, and desiring to make him really 
understand the meaning of the word, attempts an explanation. 
"An art," he says (getting the definition from a dictionary), 
"is a power of doing something not taught by Nature." The 
child stares with astonishment, as if you were talking Greek or 
Arabic. What can be meant by a "power"— what by "being 
taught by Nature?" The teacher sees that this explanation 
has only made what was dark before darker still. He attempts 
to explain his explanation, and the fog grows thicker and 
thicker. At last he gives it up, pronounces the child stupid, 
and ends by telling him to learn by rote — that is, by hurdy- 
gurdy grind — the unintelligible words. That at least the child 
can do (a parrot could be taught to do the same), and he does 
it; but his mind has received no instruction whatever from ,the 
lesson — the intelligence which distinguishes the child from the 
parrot remains entirely uncultivated. 

Our teacher proceeds to criticise. "This is," he says, 
"altogether inartistic teaching." Our great master does not 
begin with definitions — and indeed gives no definitions — because 
they are unsuited to his pupil's state of mind. He begins with 
facts which the child can understand, because he observes 
them himself. This teacher should have begun with facts. 
The first lesson in Grammar (if indeed it is necessary to teach 
Grammar at all to a little child) should be a lesson on the names 
of the objects in the room — objects which the child sees and 
handles, and knows by seeing and handling — that is, has ideas 
of them in his mind. "What is the name of this thing and 
that?" he inquires, and the child tells him. The ideas of the 



— 16 — 

things, and the names by which they are known, are already 
associated together in his consciousness, and he has already 
learned to translate things into words. The teacher may tell 
him (for he could not discover it for himself) that a name may 
also be called a noun. "What then," the teacher may say, "is a 
noun?" The child replies: "A noun is the name of a thing: 1 
He has constructed a definition himself— a very simple one cer- 
tainly—but then it is a definition which he thoroughly under- 
stands because it is his own work. This mode of proceeding 
would be artistic, because in accordance with Nature. There 
would be no need to commit the definition to memory, as a 
mere collection of words, because what it means is already 
committed to the understanding which will retain it, because it 
represents facts already known and appreciated. Thoroughly 
knowing things is the sure way to remember them." 

In some such way as this our expert brings the processes 
commonly called teaching to the touchstone of his Science, the 
Science which he has built up on his observation of the pro- 
cesses of Nature. 

I am afraid that, in spite of my illustrations, I may still 
have failed to impress you as strongly as I wish to do with the 
cardinal truth, that you cannot get the best results of teaching 
unless you understand the mind with which you have to deal. 
There are, indeed, teachers endowed with the power of sym- 
pathizing so earnestly with children, that in their case this 
sympathy does the work of knowledge, or rather it is knowl- 
edge unconsciously exercising the power proverbially attrib- 
uted to it. The intense interest they feel in their work almost 
instinctively leads them to adopt the right way of doing it. 
They are artists without knowing that they are artists. But, 
speaking generally, it will be found that the only truly efficient 
director of intellectual action is one who understands intel- 
lectual action — that is, who understands the true nature of the 
mind which he is directing. It is this demand which we make 
on the teacher that constitutes teaching as a psychological art, 
and which renders the conviction inevitable that an immense 
number of those who practice it do so without possessing the 
requisite qualifications. They undertake to guide a machine of 



— 17 — 

exquisite capabilities, and of the most delicate construction, 
without understanding its construction or the range of its 
capabilities, and especially without understanding the funda- 
mental principles of the science of mechanics. Hence the 
telling, cramming, the endless explaining, the rote-learning, 
which enfeeble and deaden the native powers of the child; and. 
hence, as the final consequence, the melancholy results of in- 
struction in our primary schools, and the scarcely less melan- 
choly results in schools of higher aims and pretensions, all of 
which are the legitimate fruit of the one fundamental error 
which I have over and over again pointed out. 

In accordance with these views, it has been insisted on 
throughout the entire Course of Lectures, that teaching, in the 
true sense of the term, has nothing in common with the system 
of telling, cramming, and drilling, which very generally usurps 
its name. The teacher, properly so called, is a man who, be- 
sides knowing the subject he has to teach, knows moreover the 
nature of the mind which he has to direct in its acquisition of 
knowledge, and the best methods by which this may be accom, 
plished. He must know the subject of instruction thoroughly, 
because, although it is not he but the child who is to learn, his 
knowledge will enable him to suggest the points to which the 
learner's attention is to be directed; and besides, as his proper 
function is to act as a guide, it is important that he should 
have previously taken the journey himself. But we discoun- 
tenance the notion usually entertained that the teacher is to 
know because he has to communicate Ms knowledge to the 
learner; and maintain, on the contrary, that his proper func- 
tion as a teacher does not consist in the communication of his 
own knowledge to the learner, but rather in such action as 
ends in the acquisition of knowledge for himself. To deny this 
principle is to give a direct sanction to telling and cramming, 
which are forbidden by the laws of education. To tell the 
child what he can learn for himself, is to neutralize his efforts; 
consequently to enfeeble his powers, to quench his interest in 
the subject, probably to create a distaste for it, to prevent him 
from learning how to learn— to defeat, in short, all the ends of 
true education. On the other hand, to get him to gain knowl- 



— 18 — 

edge for himself stimulates his efforts, strengthens his powers, 
quickens his interest in the subject and makes him take pleasure 
in learning it, teaches him how to learn other subjects, leads 
to the formation of habits of thinking; and, in short, promotes 
all the ends of true education. The obvious objection to this 
yiew of the case is, that as there are many things which the 
child cannot learn by himself, we must, of course, tell him them. 
My answer is, that the things which he cannot learn of himself 
are things unsuited to the actual state of his mind. His mind is 
not yet prepared for them; and by forcing them upon him 
prematurely, you are injuriously anticipating the natural course 
of things. You are cramming him with that which, although 
it may be knowledge to you, cannot possibly be knowledge to 
him. Knowing, in relation to the training of the mind, is the 
result of learning; and learning is the process by which the 
child teaches himself; and he teaches himself — he can only 
teach himself — by personal experience. Take, for instance, a 
portion of matter which, for some cause or other, interests him. 
He exercises his senses upon it, looks at it, handles it, etc., 
throws it on the ground, flings it up into the air; and while 
doing all this, compares it with other things, gains notions of 
its color, form, hardness, weight, etc. The result is, that 
without any direct teaching from you, without any telling, he 
knows it through his personal experience — he knows it, as we 
say, of his own knowledge; and has not only learned by him- 
self something that he did not know before, but has been 
learning how to learn. But supposing that you are not satis- 
fied with his proceeding thus naturally and surely in the career 
of self-acquisition, and you tell him something which he could 
not possibly learn by this method of his own. Let it be, for 
instance, the distance of the sun from the earth, the superficial 
area of Sweden, etc. When you have told him that the sun is 
95 millions of miles from the earth, that the area of Sweden 
is so many square miles, you have evidently transcended his 
personal experience. What you have told him, instead of 
being knowledge gained, as in the other case, at first hand, 
is information obtained probably at tenth or even fiftieth hand, 
even by yourself, and it is, therefore, in no true sense of the 



__ 19 — 

word "knowledge" even to you, much less is it knowledge 
to him; and in telling it to him prematurely, you are cram- 
ming and not teaching him. Dr. John Brown (Horce Subse- 
civce, Second series, p. 473) well says: — "The great thing with 
knowledge and the young is to secure that it shall be their 
own; that it be not merely external to their inner and real 
self, but shall go in succum et sanguinem: and, therefore, 
it is that the self-teaching that a baby and a child give them- 
selves remains with them for ever. It is of their essence, 
whereas what is given them ab extra, especially if it be re- 
ceived mechanically, without relish, and without any energizing 
of the entire nature, remains pitifully useless and wersh (insipid). 
Try, therefore, always to get the resident teacher inside the 
skin, and who is for ever giving his lessons, to help you, and 
be on your side." You easily see from these remarks of Dr. 
Brown's, that he means what I mean; — that matters of in- 
formation obtained by other people's research, and which is 
true knowledge to those who have lawfully gained it, is not 
knowledge to a child who has had no share in the acquisition, 
and your dogmatic imposition of it upon his mind, or rather 
memory only, is of the essence of cramming. Such information is 
merely patchwork laid over the substance of the cloth as com- 
pared with the texture of the cloth itself. It is on, but not of, 
the fabric. This expansive and comprehensive principle — 
which regards all learning by mere rote, even of such matters 
as multiplication-table or Latin declensions — before the child's 
mind has had some preliminary dealing with the facts of 
Number or of Latin— as essentially cramming, and, therefore, 
anti-educational in its nature — will be, of course, received or 
rejected by teachers, just in proportion as they receive or 
reject the conception of an art of teaching founded on psycho- 
logical principles. 

And this brings me to the next point for especial considera- 
tion. I said that the teacher who is to direct intellectual 
operations should understand what they are. He should, 
especially as a teacher of little children, examine well the 
method already referred to, by which they gain all their 
elementary knowledge by themselves, by the exercise of their 



— 20 — 

own, powers. He should study children in the concrete, — take 
note of the causes which operate on the will, which enlist the 
feelings, which call forth the intellect,— in order that he may use 
his knowledge with the best effect when he takes the place of 
the great natural educator. To change slightly Locke's words, 
he is to "consider the operation of the discerning faculties of a 
child as they are employed about the objects which they have 
to do with"; and this because it is his proper function as a 
teacher to guide this operation. And if he wishes to be an 
accomplished teacher — a master of his art — he should further 
study the principles of Psychology, the true groundwork of his 
action, in the writings of Locke, Dugald Stewart, Bain, Mill, 
and others, who show us what these principles are. This 
study will give a scientific compactness and co-ordination to 
the facts which he has learned by his own method of investiga- 
tion. 

But it may be said: Do you demand all this preparation for 
the equipment of a mere elementary teacher? My reply is: I 
require it because he is an elementary teacher. Whatever 
may be done in the case of those children who are somewhat 
advanced in their career, and who have, to some extent at 
least, learned how to learn, it is most of all important that in 
the beginning of instruction, and with a view to gain the most 
fruitful results from that instruction, the earliest teacher should 
be an adept in the Science and Art of Education. We should 
do as the Jesuits did in their famous schools, who, when they 
found a teacher showing real skill and knowledge in teaching 
the higher classes, promoted him to the charge of the lowest. 
There was a wise insight into human nature in this. Whether 
the child shall love or hate knowledge, — whether his fund- 
amental notions of things shall be clear or cloudy, — whether 
he shall advance in his course as an intelligent being, or as a 
mere machine, — whether he shall, at last, leave school stuffed 
with crude, undigested gobbets of knowledge, or possessed of 
knowledge assimilated by his own digestion, and, therefore, a 
source of mental health and strength,— whether he shall be 
lean, atrophied, weak, destitute of the power of self-govern- 
ment and self-direction, or strong, robust, and independent 



— 21 — 

in thought and action, — depends almost altogether on the 
manner in which his earliest instruction is conducted, and this 
again on the teacher's acquaintance with the Science and Art 
of Education. 

But besides knowing the subject of instruction, and knowing 
the Art of Education founded on the Science, the accomplished 
teacher should also know the methods of teaching devised or 
adopted by the most eminent practitioners of his art. A 
teacher, even when equipped in the manner I have suggested, 
cannot safely dispense with the experience of others. In apply- 
ing principles to practice there is always a better or worse 
manner of doing so, and one may learn much from knowing 
how others have overcome the difficulties at which we stumble. 
Many a teacher, when doubtful of the principles which consti- 
tute his usual rule of action, will gain confidence and strength 
by seeing their operation in the practice of others, or may be 
reminded of them when he has for the moment lost sight of 
them. Is it nothing to a teacher that Plato, Aristotle, Plutarch, 
Quintilian, in ancient times; Ascham, Rousseau, Comenius, 
Sturm, Pestalozzi, Ratich, Jacotot, Frobel, Richter, Herbart, 
Beneke, Diesterweg, Arnold, Spencer, and a host of others in 
modern times, have written and worked to show him what edu- 
cation is both in theory and practice ? Does he evince any- 
thing but his own ignorance by pretending to despise or ignore 
their labors? What would be said of a medical practitioner 
who knows nothing of the works or even the names of Celsus, 
Galen, Harvey, John Hunter, Sydenham, Bell, etc., and who 
sets up his empirical practice against the vast weight of their 
authority and experience? I need not insist on this argument. 
It is too obvious. Much time, therefore, has been devoted, 
during the year, to the History of Education in various countries 
and ages, and to the special work of some of the great edu- 
cational reformers. In particular, the methods of Ascham, 
Ratich, Comenius, Pestalozzi, Jacotot, and Frobel have been 
minutely described and criticised. 

And now it is only right to endeavor, in conclusion, to an- 
swer the question which may be fairly asked: "After all, what 
have you really accomplished by this elaborate exposition of 



— 22 — 

principles and methods? You have had no training schools 
for the practice of your students; it has all ended in talk." In 
reply to this enquiry or objection, I have a few words to say. 
The students whom I have been instructing are for the most 
part teachers already, who are practicing their art every day. 
My object has been so forcibly to stamp upon their minds a few- 
great principles, so strongly to impress them with convictions 
of the truth of these principles, that it should be impossible, in 
the nature of things, for them as my disciples, to act in con- 
tradiction or violation of them. Whenever, in their practice, 
they are tempted to resort to drill and cram, I know, without 
being there to see, that the principles which have become a 
part of their being, because founded on the truths of nature 
recognized by themselves, rise up before them and forbid the 
intended delinquency. In this way, without the apparatus of 
a training school, the work of a training school is done. 

But, in order to show that I am not talking at random, I 
will quote a few passages from exercises written by the students 
themselves, relative to their own experience. 

"Before attending these Lectures, my aim was that my pupils 
should gain a certain amount of knowledge. I now see how far more 
important is the exercise of those powers by which knowledge is gained. 
I am, therefore, trying to make them think for themselves. This, and 
the principle of repetition, which has been so much insisted upon, 
prevents us from getting over as much ground as formerly, but I feel 
that the work done is much more satisfactory than it used to be. I now 
try to adapt my plan to the pupil, not the pupil to my plan. I used 
to prepare a lesson (say in history) with great care; all the information 
which I thus laboriously gained, I imparted to my pupils in a few 
minutes. I now see that, though I was benefited by the process, my 
pupils could have gained but little good from it The fact of having 
a definite end in view gives me confidence in my practice. The effect 
of these Lectures, as a whole, has been to give me a new interest in 
my work. " 

"I knew before that the ordinary 'learn by rote' method was not real 
education; but being unacquainted with the Science upon which the 
true Art of instruction is founded, all my ideas on the subject were 
vague and changeable, and I often missed the very definite results of 
the 'hurdy-gurdy' system without altogether securing any better ones. 

"I have learned that the only education worthy of the name is based 
upon principles derived from the study of child-nature, and from the 



— 23 — 

observation of nature's methods of developing and training the inherent 
powers of children from the very moment of their birth. I have had my 
eyes opened to observe these processes, and now see much more in the 
actions of little children than I formerly did. More than this, I have 
learned to apply the principles of nature to the processes of formal edu- 
cation, and by them to test their value and Tightness, so that I need no 
longer be in doubt and darkness, but have sure grounds to proceed upon 
under any variation of circumstances. 

"Lastly, I have learned to reverence and admire the great and 
oood, who in different ages and various countries have devoted their 
mind's to the principles or the practice of education, whose thoughts, 
whose successes, whose very failures are full of instruction for edu- 
cators of the present day, especially for those who, having been guided 
to the sure basis upon which true education rests, are in a position to 
judge of the value of their diffwort theories and plans, and to choose 
the good and refuse theaarffr^v Q R A jp{ X?^. 

"What you have j^ne fVme I jgn^avor to do for^ary pupils. I make 
them correct their ffwn errors; indeed, do their ownVffork as much as 
possible. Since you have been teaching me, my pupils have progressed 
in mental developniLit as they have never done in all' the years I have 
been teaching. Tho^h<^from wantalfrpower an^easly training, I have 
not done you the justice which many of your pupils have, still you have 
set your seal upon me, and raft4e-ja^*Kral being, what I was not 
formerly, a scientific teacher. " 

« And now to turn to the modifications introduced into my 

practice by these Lectures. I was delighted with them, and was more 
astonished as each week passed at what I heard. New light dawned 
upon me, and I determined to profit by it. I soon saw some of the 
prodigious imperfections in my teaching, and set about remedying 
them. My 'pupils should be self-teachers,' then I must treat them as 
such. I left off telling them so much, and made them work more. 
I discontinued correcting their exercises, and made them correct them 
themselves. I made them look over their dictation before they wrote 
it, and, when it was finished, referred them to the text-book to see 

whether they had written it correctly Time would fail me to give in 

detail all the alterations introduced into my practice." 

"In conclusion, considering what my theory and practice were 
when I ^entered your class, I am convinced that the benefits I have 
derived as regards both are as follows:— (1) I have learned to observe, 
(2) to admire, (3) to imitate, and (4) to follow, Nature. My theories 
have become based on the firm foundation of principles founded on 
facts; my practice (falling far short of the perfection that I aim at 
attaining) is nevertheless in the spirit of it. And although in all 
probability I shall never equal any of these great teachers whose lives 
and labors you have described, yet I know that I shall daily improve 



— 24 — 

in my practice if I hold fast to those principles that you have laid down. 
I consider you have shown me the value of a treasure that I uncon- 
sciously possessed — I mean the power of observing nature, and, there- 
fore, I feel towards you the same sort of gratitude that the man feels 
towards the physician who has restored his sight." 

These expressions will show that my labors, however imper- 
fect, have not ended in mere talk. 

And now it is time to set you free from the long demand I 
have made on your patience. I have studiously avoided in 
this Lecture tickling your ears with rhetorical flourishes. My 
great master, Jacotot, has taught me that "rhetoric and reason 
have nothing in common." 1 have, therefore, appealed to your 
reason. I certainly might have condensed my matter more; 
but long experience in the art of intellectual feeding has con- 
vinced me that concentrated food is not easy of digestion. 
But for this fault — if it be one — and for any other, whether of 
commission or omission, I throw myself on your indulgent con- 
sideration. 






PRINCIPLES 

OF THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION, 

AS EXHIBITED IN THE PHENOMENA ATTENDANT ON THE 

UNFOLDING OF A YOUNG CHILD'S POWERS UNDER 

THE INFLUENCE OF NATURAL CIRCUMSTANCES. 



The education considered in this paper is mainly that of the Intellect; Will and 
Feeling being assumed, and not specially treated. 

The objects aimed at are, to show— (1) That the development of a child's 
powers under the influence of external circumstances constitutes his natural 
education ; (2) that formal education under the professed teacher is to continue 
and supplement natural education, and, mutatis mutandis, to recognize and adopt 
the same agencies, processes, and means; and therefore (3) that the Art of Edu- 
cation or Teaching, in general, is the practical application of the principles of 
natural education. 



I. General Principles. 

1. The child an organism. 

Every child is an organism, furnished by the Creator with inherent 
capabilities of action, and surrounded by material objects which serve 
as stimulants to action. 

2. Agency of the sensory organs. 

The channels of communication between the external stimulants and 
the child's inherent capabilities of action are the sensory organs, by 
whose agency he receives impressions. 

3. Sensations the elements of knowledge. 

These impressions, or sensations, being incapable of resolution into 
anything simpler than themselves, are the fundamental elements of all 
knowledge. The development of the mind begins with the reception of 
sensations. 

4. Sensations grow into ideas. 

The grouping of sensations forms perceptions, which are registered 
in the mind as conceptions or ideas.* The development of the mind, 
which begins with the reception of sensations, is earned onward by the 
formation of ideas. 

5. Natural education. 

The action and reaction between the external stimulants and the 
mind s inherent powers, involving processes of development t and im- 
plying growth, may be regardedas constituting a system of natural 
education. 



* By "conception," or "idea," is meant the trace, residuum, or ideal substitute 
which represents the real perception. 

■ t The term "development" is here employed for that unfolding of the natural 
powers of which " growth " is the registered result. 



6. What is involved in a system of education. 

A system of education implies: (1) an educating influence, or edu- 
cator ; (2) a being to be educated, or learner ; (3) matter for the ex- 
ercise of the learner's powers ; (4) a method by which the action of these 
powers is elicited ; and (5) an end to be accomplished. 

7. TJie coefficients, means, and ends of natural education. 

In the case before us, the educating influence, or educator, is God, 
represented by Nature, or natural circumstances ; the being to be edu- 
cated, or learner, a child ; the matter, the objects, and phenomena of the 
external world; the method, the processes by winch this matter is 
brought into communication with the learner's mind ; and the object or 
end in view, intellectual development and growth. 

In view of the different agencies concerned in effecting this intel- 
lectual education, and of their mutual relation, we arrive at the fol- 
lowing : 

II. Principles of Natural Education. 

1. The educator learns from the child how to teach him. 

Nature, as an educator, recognizes throughout all his operations the 
inherent capabilities of the learner. The laws of the learner's being 
govern the educator's action, and determine what he does, and what he 
leaves undone. He ascertains, as it were, from the child himself how 
to conduct Ins education. 

2. The educators function. 

The natural educator is the prime mover and director of the action 
and exercise in which the learner's education consists. 

3. Motives employed by the educator. Tlie most influential, the satis- 
faction of the learner in gaining knowledge by himself. 

The natural educator moves the learner's mind to action by exciting 
his interest in the new, the wonderful, the beautiful ; and maintains 
thi3 action through the pleasure felt by the learner in the simple exer- 
cise of his own powers — the pleasure of developing and growing by 
means of acts of observing, experimenting, discovering, inventing, per- 
formed by himself — of being his own teacher. 

4. The educator purveys materials, and stimidates the child's mind to 
work upon them. 

The natural educator limits himself to supplying materials suitable 
for the exercise of the learner's powers, stimulating these powers to 
action, and maintaining their action. He co-operates with, but does 
not supersede, this action. 

5. WJiat the child does himself, educates him. 

The intellectual action and exercise in which the learner's education 
essentially consists, are performed by himself alone. It is what he does 
himself, not what is done for him, that educates him. 

6. The child a learner ivho teaches himself. 

The child is, therefore, a learner who educates himself under the stim- 
ulus and direction of the natural educator. 



7. The child learns by personal experience. 

The learner educates himself by his personal experience ; that is, by 
the direct contact of his mind at first hand with the matter — object or 
fact — to be learned. 

8. The mind proceeds from the concrete to the abstract. 

The mind, in gaining knowledge for itself, proceeds from the concrete 
to the abstract, from particular facts to general facts, or principles ; 
and from principles to laws, rules, and definitions ; and not in the in- 
verse order. 

9. The mind proceeds by the method of Investigation. 

The mind, in gaining knowledge for itself, proceeds from the inde- 
finite to the definite, from the compound to the simple, from complex 
aggregates to their component parts, from the component parts to their 
constituent elements — by the method of Investigation. It employs 
both Analysis and Synthesis in close connection. 

10. The laws of intellectual action. 

The learner's process of self-education is conditioned by certain laws 
of intellectual action. These are — (1) the Law of Consciousness; (2) 
of Attention, including that of Individuation, or singling out ; (3) of 
Relativity, including those of Discrimination and Similarity ; (4) of 
Retentiveness, including those of Memory and Recollection ; (5) of 
Association, or Grouping ; (6) of Reiteration, or Repetition, including 
that of Habit. 

11. Memory the result of attention. 

Memory is the result of attention, and attention is the concentration 
of all the powers of the mind on the matter to be learned. The art of 
memory is the art of paying attention. 

12. Process of mental elaboration. 

Ideas gained by personal experience are subjected by the mind to 
certain processes of elaboration ; as, classification, abstraction, generali- 
zation, judgment, and reasoning. These processes imply the possession 
of ideas gained by personal experience, and they are all performed by 
the youngest child who possesses ideas. 

13. Knowledge consists in ideas, not in words. 

The learner's knowledge consists in ideas, gained from objects and 
facts by Ms own powers, and consciously possessed — not in words. 
The natural educator, by his action and influence, secures the learners 
possession of clear and definite primary ideas. Such ideas, so gained, 
are necessarily incorporated with the organic life of the learners 
mind, and become a permanent part of his being. 

14. Words without ideas are not knowledge to the child. 

Words are the conventional signs, the objective representatives, of 
ideas, and their value to the learner depends on his previous possession 
of the ideas they represent. The words, without the ideas, are not 
knowledge to him. 



15. The growth of body, mind, and conscience the result of self-education. 

Personal experience is the condition of development, whether of the 
body, mind, or moral sense. What the child does himself, and loves 
to do, forms his habits of doing ; but the natural educator, by devel- 
oping his powers and promoting their exercise, also guides him to the 
formation of right habits. He, therefore, encourages the physical de- 
velopment which makes the child healthy and robust, the intellectual 
development which makes him thoughtful and reasonable, and the moral 
development which makes him capable of appreciating the beautiful 
and the good. This threefold development of the child's powers tends 
to the formation of Ins bodily, mental, and moral character, and 
prepares him to recognize the claims of religion. 

16. Definition of Education. 

Education as a whole consists of development and training, and may, 
therefore, be denned as "the cultivation of all the native powers of the 
child, by exercising them in accordance with the laws of his being, 
with a view to development and growth." 



These principles constitute the Science of Natural Education. 

The above general facts or principles being the results of an analyt- 
ical investigation into the nature of the child as a thinking being, and 
into the processes by which his earliest education is carried on, consti- 
tute the Science of Natural Education. 

Natural Education the model of Formal Education. 

But as it is the same mind which is to be cultivated throughout, 
Natural Education is the pattern or model of Formal Education, 
and consequently the Science of Natural Education is the Science of 
Education in general. 

The formal educator must therefore recognize that in his practice. 

The formal educator or teacher, therefore, who professes to take up 
and continue the education begun by Nature, is to found his scheme 
of action upon the above principles, and in supplementing and com- 
plementing the natural educator's work, he is to proceed on the same 
lines. He is not to intrude modes of action winch contravene and 
neutralize the principles of natural education. 

III. The Art of Education. 

1. Art the application of Science. 

Art is the application of the laws of Science to a given subject un- 
der given circumstances. 

2. Art the explicit display of the implicit principles of Science. 

The Art of Education, or Teaching, is the explicit display of the im- 
plicit principles of the Science of Education. 

3. The child a learner who teaches himself 

The principles already stated set the child or pupil before us as one 
who gains knowledge for himself, at first hand, by the exercise of his 
own native powers, through personal experience, and therefore as a 
learner who teaches himself. 



This central principle a limit. 

This is the central principle of the Art of Teaching. It serves as a 
limit to define both the functions of the formal teacher, and the nature 

of the matter on which the learner's powers are first to be exercised 

that is, of the subject of instruction. 

It limits or defines the function of tlie educator. 

The limit which includes, also excludes — it proscribes as well as pre- 
scribes. The teacher who regards the child as a learner who is to 
teach himself through personal experience, is therefore interdicted 
from doing anything to interfere with the learner's own method, — 
from telling, cramming, explaining, and even from correcting, merely 
on his own authority, the learner's blunders. The function assigned 
him by the Science of Education is that of a stimulator, director, 
and superintendent of the learner's work, and to that office he is to 
confine himself. 

It also determines the nature of the matter to be learnt. 

But the limit in question determines also the character of the matter 
on which the learner's powers are to be first exercised. If he is to 
teach himself, he can only do so by exercising his mind on concrete 
objects or actions — on facts. These furnish him with ideas. He 
cannot teach himself by abstractions, rules, and definitions, packed up 
for him in words by others ; for these do not furnish him with ideas 
of his own. In all that he has to learn he must begin with facts — that 
is, with personal experience. It is clear, then, that the conception of 
the learner as a self -teacher determines both the manner in which he 
is to be taught and the means. 

The general principle applies both to education and direct instruction. 
This notion of the Art of Teaching, which has specially in view the 
period of the child's life when the formal teacher first takes him in 
hand, in order to develop and train his mind, is capable of general 
application. It applies, therefore, with the requisite modifications, to 
instructions properly so called, which consists in the orderly and sys- 
tematic building of knowledge into the mind, with a definite object. 

The teacher educates by instructing, and instructs by educating. 

The teacher, therefore, educates by instructing, and instructs by edu- 
cating. Education and instruction are different aspects of the same 
process. 

Summary. 

The sum of what has been laid down is, that the Art of Education 
consists in the practical application of principles gained by studying 
the nature of the child ; the central principle, which governs all the 
rest, being that it is what the child does for and by himself that edu- 
cates him. 



Education, 

General Philology, Works of Keference, 
Handbooks for Teachers, etc. 



A descriptive List of 
American, British, German, French, 

and other 

Books and Periodicals. 




E. Steiger, 

22 & 24 Frankfort Street, NEW YORK. 

1876. 



PREFACE. 



In presenting this Catalogue to the special public for whom it is in- 
tended, I deem it due to myself to make a few observations. 

What I herewith offer, is an attempt at a Descriptive Catalogue of the more 
important Publications on Education, General Philology, and other subjects 
of special interest to American Teachers ; in other words, this list is but 
the firstlings of a somewhat larger Catalogue which I shall strive to make as 
complete as may prove to be desirable, in subsequent issues. For reasons 
which need not be here dwelt upon, I have also enumerated not only the 
more important books and periodicals belonging to the above-mentioned 
classes, published in Great Britain, but also those of Germany and France. 

However small the present list, the labor involved in its compilation has 
been very great. Any one even moderately acquainted with the task herein 
represented, will appreciate the difficulties which had to be met and over- 
come. 

My desire was to make even the first issue of this Catalogue as complete, 
accurate, and serviceable as possible. Short titles of the publications herein 
enumerated have been noted for years. These had to be verified when 
practicable. 

Publishers' and other Catalogues do not generally give full and accurate 
information concerning authors' Christian names, the title as printed on the 
title page, the number of volumes, size, number of pages, style of binding, 
illustrations, and other particulars respecting the several publications. 

These data I consider essential, and I saw that unless they could be ob- 
tained, I should be compelled to exclude absolutely the majority of the 
titles previously collected. 

Some three months ago, therefore, I sent out proof-sheets, to the number 
of 680, to authors, editors, librarians, publishers, booksellers, school 
officers and others who I thought might be able to aid me in the work. 
Of these there are many who, either as authors or publishers of certain 
works, are directly concerned^ 

I was in hopes that my endeavors would meet with general support, but 
to the 680 copies of the proof-sheets sent by me, with a special request 



Copyright, 1876, by E. Steigeb. 



— Ill — 



attached, I received TO answers in all. Six hundred and ten of those ad- 
dressed on the subject have not yet been heard from. Consequently, a very 
large number of works are not enumerated here, which, by a little trouble on 
the part of those applied to, might have been duly described and have found 
their place in the list ; while, for special reasons, many titles have been 
retained in spite of the imperfect data at command touching the works 
themselves. 

Of the gentlemen who answered me, six or eight aided me very materially 
by corrections, suggestions, additions, etc. , and to them my best thanks are 
tendered. 

Notwithstanding the care bestowed, I cannot claim that the descriptive 
statements appended to the titles enumerated in this list, may in all cases be 
relied upon. These particulars have been, in many instances, gathered from 
the various sources of information within my reach — not from an actual in- 
spection of the books — and are, therefore, open to revision and completion. 

The plan followed in the compilation of the present Descriptive Catalogue 
differs in some respects from that of other bibliographers. While aiming at 
a detailed accuracy not generally deemed necessary, I strive to combine 
clearness with brevity by the use of certain Abbreviations. 

These may be divided into three classes. The first class embraces those 
used for the Christian names of authors, and are: 



Ab. 


for Abraham 


G. 


for George 


Pa. 


for Paul 


Alb. 


" Albert 


Gu. 


" Gustavus 


P. 


" Peter 


Al. 


" Alexander 


u. 


" Henry 


Ph. 


" Philip 
" Bichard 


And. 


" Andrew 


I. 


" Isaac 


m. 


Arch. 


" Archibald 


Ja. 


" James 


Bo. 


" Bobert 


An. 


" Austin 


Jl. 


" Joel 


Bud. 


" Rudolph 


Ben. 


" Benjamin 


J. 


" John 


Bu. 


' ' Bufus 


c. 


" Charles 


Jo. 


" Joseph 


S. 


" Samuel 


Dan. 


" Daniel 


Ju. 


" Julius 


St. 


" Stephen 
" Thaddeus 


Dav. 


" David 


L. 


" Lewis 


Tha. 


Mb. 


" Ebenezer 


IjOU. 


" Louis 


Th. 


" Theodore 


Edm. 


" Edmund 


Matt. 


" Matthias 


Tho. 


" Thomas 


Ed. 


" Edward 


Mil. 


" Milton 


Wa. 


" Walter 


E. 


" Ernest 


Nathl. 


" Nathaniel 


Wash. 


" Washington 
" William 


Fran. 


" Francis 


Ni. 


" Nicholas 


W. 


Fr. 


" Frederic 


No. 


" Noah 






Fri. 


" Friedrich 


Ol. 


" Oliver 






Where a Christian name 


is unknown, or not usually written 


in full, the initial is 


followed by a colon (:). 











The method, generally adopted, of transposing the Christian and surnames 
of authors, has been departed from in this Catalogue, in order to render it 
uniform with all my other Catalogues, and also from the conviction that the 
difficulty, inherent in the other system, of distinguishing the two classes of 
names may, by the adoption of the present plan, be avoided. 

The second class of Abbreviations deals with the size of books, which 
they represent thus : 

fo.=Folio.— 4.=Quarto.— roy. 8. or imp. 8.=Large size Octavo.— cr. 8.=Crown 8.— 
8.=Octavo. — 12.=Duodecimo, etc. 

It will, of course, be understood that, unlesss otherwise stated, each work 
consists of but one volume, and that the description of the same refers to 
the last edition, i. e. the one now in the market. 



IV — 



The Abbreviations of the third class embrace every thing else descriptive 
of books, and signify: 



& 


and 


gt. e. 


gilt edge 


pp. 


pages 


bds. 


boards 


gt. s. 


gilt side 


pap. 


paper 


bo. 


bound 


gt.t. 


gilt top 


phots. 


photographs 


of. 


calf 


hf. 


half 


pi., pis. 


plate, — s 


cl. 


cloth 


illd. 


illustrated 


pt., pts. 


portrait. — s 


col. 


colored 


ills. 


illustrations 


rev. ed. 


revised edition 


cop. pi. 


copper plate 


interl. 


interleaved with 


ro. 


roan 


cop. pis. 


copper plates 




writing paper 


russ. 


Russia leather 


dble. p. 


double page 


law sh. 


law sheep 


sh. 


sheep 


e. 


edge 


1. 


leather 


sq. 


square 


ed. 


edition 


lib. 


library 


St. 


steel 


eng., engs. 


engraving, — s 


lith., liths. 


lithograph, — s 


tur. 


Turkey leather 


flex. 


flexible 


mp„ mps. 


map, — s 


v., vs. 


volume, — s 


full gt. 


full gilt 


mor. 


morocco 


wd. 


wood 


full p. 


full page 


obi. 


oblong 


wd.cts. 


wood cuts 



The several Abbreviations are used in this order : The figure following 
the title or the statement in regard to illustrations, etc., indicates the size, 
and the figure following the perpendicular line ( | ) names the number of 
pages. Then follow successively the style of binding, price, and place of 
publication. — Where information could not be obtained, the space is left 
blank. 

With such imperfections as it may bear, I now send forth this new num- 
ber in the series of my Catalogues, and trust that these bibliographical labors 
may prove useful. I cherish the hope that all who can will aid me, by such 
information as they may have, in bringing subsequent editions of the 
" Pedagogical Library" to the completeness and perfection essential to the 
permanent utility and consequent value which are my chief aim in its 
production. 

In conclusion I would express my conviction, based upon observation 
and experience, that descriptive Book Catalogues stimulate the purchasing 
of books ; that they are beneficial to the student, whom they guide to the 
best means and helps, of which otherwise he might remain ignorant, no less 
than to the publisher, for whose books a demand is thereby created. 

There is among the productions of American publishers a much larger 
number of valuable books in special departments than is generally sup- 
posed. It is to be regretted that, owing simply to the want of proper, 
systematic cataloguing, their existence is unknown to thousands who might 
otherwise profit by them. 

New Yoek, August 2d, 1876. JET. SteigeV. 



Education, General Philology, Works of Keference, 
Handbooks for Teachers, etc. 



J~ac. Abbott. Gentle Measures in the Manage- 
ment and Training of the Young, or the 
Principles on which ajirm Parental Author- 
ity may be established and maintained with- 
out violence or anger, and the Right Develop- 
ment of the Moral and Mental Capacities be 
promoted by methods in harmony with the 
Structure and Characteristics of the Juvenile 
Mind. A Book for the Parents of Young 
Children, illd. 12 1 cl. $1.75. N. Y. 

The Teacher. Moral Influences employed 

in tie Instruction and Government of the 
Young, illd. 12 1 cl. $1.75. N. Y. 

J. S: C: Abbott. The Child at Home; or, the 
Principles of Filial Duty familiarly illus- 
trated, illd. 16 1 cl. $1.00. N. Y. 

The Mother at Home ; or, the Principles of 

Maternal Duty, familiarly illustrated, illd. 
16| cl. $1.00. N. Y. 

Amos Bronson Alcott. Record of a School, 
exemplifying the Principles and Methods of 
Moral Culture. 16|297. cl. $1.50. Boston 

Jo. Alden. Christian Ethics ; or, The Sci- 
ence of Duty. 12|170. cl. $1.25. N. Y. 

Elements of Intellectual Philosophy. 12 1 

cl. $1.25. N. Y. 

Hand-book for Sunday-School Teachers. 

16|222. cl. $0.75. N. Y. 

Outlines on Teaching. 12 [ 32. flex. cl. 

$0.25. N. Y. 

Arch. Alexander. Outlines of Moral Sci- 
ence. 12 1 cl. $1.50. N. Y. 

iS. Davi.es Alexander. Princeton College 
during the Eighteenth Century. 8|341. cl. 
$2.50. N. Y. 

Arrh. Alison. Essays on the Nature and 
Principles of Taste. With Corrections and Im- 
provements by Ab. Mills. 12 1 cl. $1.50. N. Y. 

J: ATleker. Die Volksschule. Unter Mit- 
wirkung von Fachmdnnern herausgegeben. 
8|862. pap. $3.50. Freiburg 

8. An. Allibone. Dictionary of English 
Literature, and British and American Au- 
t tors, living and deceased. From the Earliest 
Times to the Middle of the 19th Century. 
Containing over 16.000 Articles (Authors . 
Witb 40 Indexes of Subjects. 3 vs. roy. 
8 1 el. $22.50, sb. $25.50, bf. mor. ant. 
$28.50, lull mor. $15.00. Pbila. 

A New Dictionary of Poetical Quotations, 

covering the entire fie'd of British and Amer- 
ican Poetry, from the time of Chaucer to 
the present day. Witb a variety of useful 
Indices, and Authors and Subjects alpha- 
betically arranged. 8|78S. cl. $5.00, sh. 
$6.00, tur. ant. $10.00. Pbila. 



The A merican Convent as a School for Protestant 
Children. 18 1 340. cl. $1.25. N. Y. 

American Educational Cyclopedia. A Ref- 
erence Book for all Matters pertaining to 
Education, v. I. 8|292. pap. $1.50, cl. 
$2.00. N. Y. 

American Eloquence. A Cyclopcedia of Amer- 
ican Eloquence. 2 vs. With fine st. pts. 8| 
cl. $7.00, sh. $8.00, hf. mor. $10.00, hf. cf. 
$10.00. N. Y. 

Andre. Etudes sur les progres de V education 
et sur les developpements de I'instruction po- 
pulaire en France, depuis les temps les plus 
recules jusqu'd J. J. Rousseau. 12 1 pap. 
$1.40. Paris 

C. Anthon's Classical Dictionary. Contain- 
ing an account of the principal Proper 
Names mentioned in Ancient Authors, and 
intended to elucidate all the important points 
connected toith the Geography, History, Biog- 
raphy, Mythology, and Fine Arts of the 
Greeks and Romans, together with an account 
of the Coins, Weights, and Measures of the 
Ancients, with Tabular Values of the same. 
roy. 8 1 sh. $6.00. N. Y. 

Antoine Arnauld. Logique de Port-Royal. 
Avec introduction et notes par M. Jourdain. 
12 1 pap. $1.00. Paris 

Matthew Arnold. Essays in Criticism. 16] 
cl. $2.00. Boston 

A French Eton ; or, Middle-Class Educa- 
tion and the State. 8 1 $1.00. London 

Higher Schools and Universities in Ger- 
many. With a new Preface comparing the 
Policy of the Prussian Government towards 
Roman Catholic Education and Roman Cath- 
olicism with that of the English Government 
in Ireland, cr. 8j $2.00. London 

Neil Arnott. Observations on National Edu- 
cation. 12 1 cl. $0.75. London 

Itorfer Ascham. The Schole Master. With 
copious Notes and a Glossary by J: E: B: 
Mayor. 12 1 cl. $3.00. London 

Fri. Ascher. Die Erzichung der Jugend. 
Ein Handbuch fur Eltern und Erzieher. 
8|228. cl. $1.60. Berlin 

A : M: Baron. A Manual of Gesture. With 
100 Figures, embracing a complete System of 
Notation, witii the Principles of Interpretation 
and Selections for Practice. 12 1 260. cl. $1.75. 
Chicago 

Fran. Bacon. Essays with Annotations by 
Archbishop Whately. New Edition con- 
taining a Preface, Notes, and Glossarial In- 
dex, by F: F:' Heard. 8|641 cl. $3.50, hf. 
cf. $6.00, hf. tur., gt. t. $6.00, full mor. 
$9.00. Boston 



JE. Steiger, £2s> Sc &~L JTraultibi-t i=>u, ~Sf ew York, 



(Education, (Benerai piufofogy, 3$or!b of Kcfcwncc, etc. 



Fran. Bacon. Essays and Colours of Good 
and Evil. With Notes and Glossarial Index, 
by W: Aldis Wright. 12 1 cl. $1.25. 
London 

The Students' Bacon. Essays, with An- 
notations by Archbishop Whatelt. cr. 8 1 641. 
cl. $2.50; hf. cf. $1.50; laf. mor. $4.50; full 
rnor. $6.00. Boston 

AI. Bain. Logic, Deductive and Inductive. 
12 1 cl. $2.00. N. Y. 

Mental Science : A Compendium of Psy- 
chology and History of Philosophy. 12 1 cl. 
$1.75. N. Y. 

Moral Science : A Compendium of Ethics. 

12 1 337. cl. $1.75. N. Y. 

Mind and Body. The Theory of their 

Relations. 12 1 cl. $1.50. N. Y. 

The Senses and the Intellect. 8 1 696. cl. 

$5.00. N. Y. 

Fri. Ballhom. Grammatography. A Manual 
of Reference to the Alphabets of Ancient and 
Modern Languages, roy. 8|80. cl. $3.75 
London 

H. Barnard. American Pedagogy : Edu- 
cation, The School, and The Teacher, in Amer- 
ican Literature. 8 1 608. cl. $3.50. Hartford 

— — American Teachers, Educators, and Bene- 
factors of Education. With 130 pts. 5 vs. 
8| cl. perv. $3.50. Hartford 

Educational Aphorisms and Suggestions, 

Ancient and Modern. Part I. 8 1*202. cl. 
$2.50. Hartford 

Elementary and Secondary Instmction in 

the German States : Anhalt, Austria, Baden, 
Bavaria, Brunswick, Hannover, Hesse-Cas- 
sel, Hesse-Darmstadt, Liechtenstein, Lippe- 
Detmold, Lippe-Schaumburg , Luxemburg and 
Limburg, Mecklenburg - Schwerin, Mecklen- 
burg- Strelitz, Nassau, Oldenburg, Prussia, 
Reuss, Saxony, Saxe-Altenburg, Saxe-Coburg, 
Saxe - Meiningen, Saxe- Weimar, Waldeck, 
Wurttemberg, and the Free Cities, with a gen- 
eral Summary of the Educational Systems 
and Statistics for the whole of Germany. 8 1 856. 
cl. $5.50. Hartford 

Elementary and Secondary Instruction in 

Switzerland (each of the 23 Cantons), France, 
Belgium, Holland, Denmark, Norway, and 
Sweden, Russia, Turkey, Greece, Italy, Por- 
tugal and Spain. 8 1 878. cl. $5.50. Hartford 

English Pedagogy : Education, The School, 

and The Teacher in English Literature. First 
Series : Ascham's Scho'le Master; Bacon, On 
Studies and Education, loith Annotations by 
Whately ; Wotton's Apothegms on Educa- 
tion; Milton's Tractate on Education; Hart- 
lib's College of Agriculture ; Petty's Trade 
School ; Locke's Thoughts on Education ; 
Spencer's Education; Fuller's Good 
Schoolmaster ; Goldsmith's Village School- 
master ; Su. nstone's Schoolmistress. 8|482. 
cl. $3.50. Hartford 

Second Series. 8 1 608. cl. $3.50. 

Hartford 

English Teachers. Educators, and Promot- 
ers of Education. 8 1 556. cl. $3.50. Hartford 

French Teachers, Schools, and Pedagogy — 

Old and New. 8|64S. cl. $3.50. Hartford 



H. Barnard. German Pedagogy: Educa- 
tion, The School, and The Teacher in German 
Literature, (Abbenrode, Beneke, Diesterweg, 
Fichte, Frcebel, Goethe, Graser, Hencamp, 
Hentschel, Herbart, Hertz, Raumer, Riecke, 
Wichern.) 8|916. cl. $3.50. Hartford 

German Teachers and Educational Re- 
formers : Memoirs of Eminent Teachers and 
Educators, with contributions to the History 
of Education in Germany. 8|586. cl. $3.50. 
Hartford 

Military and Naval Schools in France, 

Prussia, Bavaria, Italy, Russia, Holland, 
England, and the United States. 8|960. cl. 
$6.00. Hartford 

National Education. Systems, Institutions, 

and Statistics of Public Instruction in differ- 
ent Countries. Part I. Europe. — German 
States. 8 1 916. cl. $5.50. Hartford 

Part II. Europe. — Switzerland, 

France, Belgium, Holland, Denmark, Nor- 
way, Sweden, Russia, Turkey, Greece, Por- 
tugal. 8|1263. cl. $5.50. Hartford 

Pestalozzi and Pestalozzianism. Life, 

Educational Principles, and Methods of John 
Henry Pestalozzi ; ivith Biographical Sketches 
of several of his Assistants and Disciples. 
With pt. 2 Parts in 1 v. 8(468. cl. $3.50. 
Hartford 

Primary Schools and Elementary Instruc- 
tion : Object Teaching and Oral Lessons on 
Social Science and Common Things and other 
Subjects and Methods of Primary Education 
in the Model and Training Schools of Great 
Britain. (Papers for the Teachers. Sec- 
ond Series.) 8 1 544. cl. $3.00. Hartford 

School Codes. Constitutional Provisions 

respecting Education. State School Codes, and 
City School Regulations. 8 1 cl. $3.00. Hart- 
ford 

Science and Art. Systems, Institutions, 

and Statistics of Scientific Instruction, Ap- 
plied to National Industries in different 
Countries, v. I. Austria, Baden, Bavaria, 
Brunswick, Free Cities, Hannover, Nassau, 
Prussia, Saxony, Saxon Principalities, Wurt- 
temberg, France, Belgium, Holland, Den- 
mark, Norway, Sweden, Russia,Switzerland, 
Italy. 8J807. cl. 5.50. Hartford 

True Student Life. Letters, Essays, and 

Thoughts on Studies and Conduct; Addressed 
to Young Persons by Men eminent in Litera- 
ture and A fairs. Seconded. 8|552. cl. 
$3.50. Hartford 

Principles, Plans, and Specifications for 

Structures for educational pur poses. Revised 
ed. With 1000 ills. 8|800. cl. $5.00. 
Hartford 

Superior Instruction in different coun- 
tries : Universities of Germany, Past and 
Present; History of Higher Teaching in 
Athens, Rome, and Alexandria; Early 
Christian Schools; Universities of Bologna 
and Paris ; Revival of Classical Studies in 
Italy, the Netherlands, etc. Present Condi- 
tion of Universities and Colleges in Europe 
and the United States. 8 1 896. cl. $5.50. 
Hartford 



TO. Steigrer, 22 &. 24 Frankfort St., INew York. 



(Educution, (Bcncrul fhifofogy, DorlU of Reference, etc. 3 



Th. H. Bwrau. Conseils sur V education 
dans lafamilleetau college. 8| pap. $2.00. 
Paris 

Direction morale pour les instituteurs. 18 1 

pap. $1.00. Paris 

Ctrl Barthel's Schul-Padagogik. Ein Hand- 
buchfur angchende Schullehrer u. Schulrevi- 
soren. Ntu bearbeitet von G: Wanjura. 
8 1 418. pap. $1.25. Breslau 

J. Bartlett. Familiar Quotations: Being an 
Attempt to trace to their Sources Passages and 
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E. Steiger, 22 & 24 Frankfort St., P*ew York, 



THE 

CYCLOPEDIA OF EDUCATION. 

EDITED BY 

HENRY KIDDLE 

AND 

ALEXANDER J. SCHEM. 



This work will be published in one large octavo volume, of about 800 pages, 

uniform in style of binding and price with the volumes of Applet on 1 s American 
Cyclopaedia, viz: 

In extra Cloth, $5.00 

In Library Leather, 6.00 

In Half Turkey Morocco, 7.00 

In Half Russia, extra gilt, 8.00 

In Full Morocco, antique, gilt edges, 10.00 

In Full Russia. 10.00 



Prospectus. 

There is no doubt that one of the greatest wants, at the present time, in the 
educational literature, not only of the United States, but of Great Britain, is a 
Cyclop<edia of Education. The value of cyclopaedias as works of reference 
on all questions on which information is needed, is becoming, from day to day, better 
understood and more generally recognized; and, consequently, the number of such 
works has of late rapidly increased. 

Still, althoug the educated classes of the United States now have access to a 
number of excellent general cyclopaedias, as well as to such as are especially de- 
voted to particular branches of science, educators, school-officers, and the large 
class of persons who take a general interest in educational questions and pursuits, 
seek in vain for any work in the English language, to which they may refer for the 
information of which they are constantly in need. 

Germany, which in this respect, is in advance of all other countries, already 
possesses several educational cyclopaedias, among which the large work of Schmid, 
in ten volumes, is the most important and valuable of its kind ever published; and 
of this a very useful and convenient abridgment is now being issued. In no country 
in the world is the diffusion of knowledge, general and technical, more important, 
or more highly appreciated by the people, than in the United States ; and hence it 
is quite time that this country had its own Cyclopaedia of Education. 

The work which the undersigned is about to present to the public, will consist 
of a single volume of about 800 pp., 8vo.; but it will be comprehensive and com- 
plete, treating, in alphabetical order, of all the subjects in which teachers, school- 
officers, and educators of every class may be supposed to take an interest. The 
articles embrace the following general topics: — 

1. Theory of Education and Instruction, including school organization, man- 
agement, and discipline, also methods of instruction,— pedagogy and didactics. 

2. Governmental Policy in regard to education, including such subjects as 
compulsory education, rate-bills, truant-laws, etc., etc. 



3. The Administration of Schools and School- Systems— embracing super- 
vision, school examinations, teachers' qualifications and salaries, school architec- 
ture, etc. 

4. The History of Education, including an account of all the prominent plans 
and methods of school organization and instruction, that have been proposed, or 
that are at present in vogue. 

5. Biographical Scetches of distinguished educators of this and other countries. 

6. School Statistics, relating to 

a) Schools, etc., of different countries, states, cities, religious denomina- 

tions, etc. 

b) Different kinds of Schools, as public schools, parochial schools, private 

schools, special or technical schools, seminaries and high shools, Col- 
leges and Universities, Kindergartens, etc. 

7. Educational Literature and Bibliography. As the immense amount of 
material to be condensed in the compass of a single volume, will necessitate the 
greatest possible brevity, special attention will be given, throughout the work, to 
literary references. That is to say, the works which give the fullest and most trust- 
worthy information on important subjects treated, will be named at the end of the 
articles. In this way, the Cyclopaedia will be rendered a complete guide to 
teachers in studying the standard works in the educational literature of this and 
other countries. 

In the preparation of these articles, the editors have endeavored to engage, as 
far as possible, the best educational talent and experience in this country, — a 
country which, it will be acknowledged, is especially distinguished for the activity, 
intelligence, and ability, with which educational enterprises have been carried on. 
Contributions have also been received from prominent scholars and educators in 
foreign countries. There can be no doubt, therefore, that this work, when com- 
pleted, will be characterized not only by fullness and accuracy of statement as well 
as completeness of information, but by excellence in composition and style. As the 
work is designed to circulate among all denominations and classes, pains have also 
been taken to insure in the treatment of every subject entire impartiality and free- 
dom from religious and partisan bias. 

The names of the gentlemen who have undertaken the task of editing this 
work, are in themselves a sufficient guaranty of the creditable character of the 
work when completed. 

Mr. HENRY KIDDLE, City Superintendent of Common Schools in New York, 
has been connected during a period of more than twenty -five years with popular 
education, and possesses a ripe experience not only as superintendent, but as author 
and teacher; and standing, for so long a period, at the head of the largest school 
system in the United States, he has had rare opportunities of making himself 
thoroughly familiar with all matters pertaining to the theory and practice of in- 
struction, as well as the other subjects to-be treated in the Cyclopaedia. 

Of Professor ALEXANDER J. SCHEM, the Associate-Editor, it is proper to 
say that, since the year 1851, when he commenced his career in this country, he 
has had a varied experience, both educational and literary, especially fitting him 
for the work now undertaken. Among the positions held by him since the year 
mentioned, may be enumerated that of Professor in Dickinson College, Carlisle, 
Pa., and his present position of Assistant Superintendent of Schools in this City. 
Besides, for nine years, he was connected with the editorial staff of the N. Y. 
Tribune, and a frequent contributor to other journals. His cyclopaedic experience 
has been especially extensive, as contributor to both editions of the New American 
Cyclopaedia, and to the successive volumes of the Annual Cyclopaedia, also to 
McClintock and Strong's Biblical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Cyclopaedia, 



and as editor in chief of the German American Cyclopaedia, in 11 volumes., pub- 
lished from 1869 to 1874. Mr. Schem has also made our American systems of 
Education, as well as those of foreign countries, a subject of special study. 

To the foregoing prospectus, the undersigned wishes to add the assurance that 
he is resolved to contribute his best energies and resources to the production of the 
work, so that it may reflect credit not only upon the literature, but on the publishing 
enterprise, of this, his adopted country. 

The Cyclopaedia of Education, which was planned some years ago, and first 
advertised in November, 1874, is now nearly ready for the press. It is expected to 
be issued on or about November 1st, 1876, similar in size and style to Appleton's 
American Cyclopaedia. 

Annual Supplements will be issued in like style, to continue all the departments 

of the Cyclopaedia, and thus keep the work up with the progress of educational 

matters. 

22 & 24 Frankfort St., _ _ . . ' ' . 

, TI ,„ r „~„~ , . -JL, E. Steiger, Publisher. 

NEW YORK, August, 1876. " ' 



The following are a few names from the list of 

Contributors to the Cyclopaedia of Education: 

Hon. Ellis A. Apgar, Supt. Public Instruction, New Jersey. — Rev. Jno. G. Baird, 
Asst. Sec. Board of Education, Ct. — Hon. J. W. Bicknell, Editor N. E. Journal of Educa- 
tion. — Rev. W. H. Bo wen, Corr. Sec. Freewill Baptist Educ. Society. — Prof. N. P. 
Bowne, Boston University. — Hon. Dan. B. Brings, Supt. Public Instruction, Michigan. — 
Norman A. Calkins, Esq., Asst. Supt. Schools, New York. — M. P. Cavert, Esq., Supt. 
Schools, Rhinebeck, N. Y. — Prof. Geo. F. Comfort, Syracuse University, N. Y. — Hon. 
Edward Conant, Supt. Public Instruction, Vermont. — Hon. *T. C. Corbin, late Supt. 
Public Instruction, Arkansas. — Geo. H. Curtis, Esq., Prof. Music, New York. — Rev. Dr. 
Cutting, Corr. Sec. Baptist Educ. Society, Brooklyn, N. Y. — Prof. E. H. Day, Normal 
College, New York. — Hon. W. L. Dickinson, City Supt. Schools, Jersey City. — Dr. James 
Donaldson, Rector Edinburgh High School. —Dr. A. Douai, Irvington, N. J. —Prof. W. 
E. Griffis, late of the Imperial College, Tokio, Japan. — Hon. H. M. Hale, Supt. Schools, 
Colorado. — Prof Wm. G. Hammond, LL. D., Iowa State University. — Thos. F. Har- 
rison, Esq., Asst. Supt. Schools, Neiv York. — Dr. E. O. Haven, Chancellor Syracuse Uni- 
versity, N. Y. — ,J. W. Ha tees, Esq., Neiv York. — Rev. W. W. Hieks, Dickinson College, 
Carlisle, Pa. — Dr. Fred. Hoffmann, New York.— Hon. Henry Houck, Dep. Supt. Public 
Instruction, Pa. — Dr. I. F. Hurst, President Drew Theol. Sent., Madison, N.J. — Prof 
AbramJaeobi, M. D., New York.— Prof D. P. Kidder, Drew Theol. Sem., Madison, 
N. J. — Albert Klamroth, Esq., New York. — W. H. Larrabee, Esq., New York.— Dr. 
Edwin Leigh, New York.— Wilson MaeDomtld, Esq., Artist, New York.— Hon. T. M. 
McKenzie, Supt. Public Instruction, Nebraska. — Prof Francis A. March, Lafayette 
College, Easton, Pa. — Prof. <T, M, D. Meiklejohn, University of St. Andrews, Scotland.— 
Prof O. W. Morris, late of Deaf and Dumb Inst., New York.— Hon. M. A, Newell, Supt. 
Public Instruction, Maryland. — Prof Edward Olney, University of Michigan. — S. S. 
Packard, Esq., Neiv York. — Hon. John D. Philbriek, Supt. Schools, Boston. —Hon. 
T. L. Pickard, Supt. Schools, Chicago.— Prof I. P. Roberts, Cornell University, Ithaca, 
N. Y. — Rev. W. H. Ruff tier, Supt. Public Instruction, Virginia. — Prof. Charles A. 
Schlegel, Normal College, New York.— Hon. Edward. Searing, Supt Public Instruction, 
Wisconsin. — Hon. R. D. Shannon, Supt. Public Instruction, Missouri. — Gen. Franz 
Sigel, New York. — Hon J. W. Simonds, Supt. Public Instruction, New Hampshire. — Hon. 
J. H. Smart, Supt. Puplic Instruction, Indiana. — Hon. tfohti Swett, San Francisco, Cal.— 
Rev. Dr. I. N. Tarbox, Corr. Sec. American Education Society, Boston. Mass. — Prof. J. S. 
Thornton, University College School, London. — W. B. Wait, Esq., Supt. Institution of 
Blind, Neiv York. — Hon. Joseph White, Sec. Board of Education, Mass. — Hon. H. B. 
Wilson, Supt. Public Instruction, Minn.— Hon. J. O. Wilson, Supt. Schools, Washington, 
D. C.—Prof. J. W. Worman, Norwich, N. Y. 




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A. DOUAI'S Series of 

RATIONAL READERS, 

combining the Principles of 

Pestalozzi's and Frcebel's Systems of Education. 

With a systematic classification of English words, by which their Pronun- 
ciation, Orthography and Etymology may be taught readily 
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State Superintendents of J)uMic Instruction 

have, of their own accord, communicated to the Publisher: 

"The law forbids my recommending text-books; but privately I am free 
to say, that the facilities you furnish in your Reading Charts and elementary 
Readers for teaching German and French to beginners, are excellent, 
and superior to any with which I am acquainted." 

Another observes: 

' 'I have been using your German Introductory Books, for more than a 
year, in the Model School under my superintendence, and am much pleased 
with them. The Charts strike me as supplying a positive want in our School 
Apparatus. Iain disposed to look upon them with the highest 
possible favor." 

Another says: 

"I am glad to know that you are furnishing such excellent helps for the 
study of the French and German languages in our Public Schools. Your 
Ahn-Henn Series, in my judgment, is superior to all others. I take 
pleasure in recommending these works to all teachers who desire to intro- 
duce the study of these languages into their schools." 

Another remarks: 

"Your Ahn-Hexn rudimentary text-books of German and French form 
a complete and superior series for beginners. The books are 
simple in design, progressively arranged, and present a fine appearance. 
The Charts also will greatly aid the young student. The use of the Series 
will enable pupils to attain correct pronunciation, and will economize 
time, labor, and money." 

Another thus expresses himself: 
"I can say that, in my opinion, they are, in adaptation to the wants of 
schools, equal to any, and in many respects superior to all 
other publications on these subjects." 



It is a telling fact that in the Public Schools of 
New York City AHN~HEN2FS rudimentary Books are now 
being used in preference to all similar publications. 

Relying solely upon the merits of his educational publications, 
E. Steiger employs no Agents, 



Steigers German Series. 

AHN'S German Primer. Edited by W. Grauert. (Printed in bold type, and 
containing much German Script.) New Edition. Boards $0.45. 

AHN'S G erma n Reading Charts. 25 Plates, with Hand-Book for Teachers. By 
Dr. P. Henn. (These Wall-Charts are printed in very large German type, with 
German Script letters expressly cut for the same.) $1.00. 

The same. The 25 Plates mounted on 13 boards. $4.50.— Varnished. $6.00. 

(AHN'S German Heading Cha rts may be advantageously used, as an introduc- 
tory course of German Reading, Writing, and Spelling, with any German Grammar.) 

AHN'S German Script Charts. 4 Plates. (German Script of very large size, 
mounted on 4 boards, varnished; suitable for permanent display on the wall.) $1.25. 

AHN'S First German Hook. By Dr. P. Henn. (Exercises in Reading, Writing, 
Spelling, Translation, and Conversation. Printed in bold type and containing a very 
large amount of German Script. Designed for the lowest two grades.] Boards $0.25. 

AHN'S Second German Book. By Dr. P. Henn. (Exercises in Writing, Reading, 
Translation and Conversation. Containing much German Script. With Paradigms 
and Vocabularies.) Boards $0.45, Half Roan $0.60. These two books together form: 

AHN'S Rudiments of the German Language. By Dr. P. Henn. (With Vocabu- 
laries. Edition of 1873.) Boards $0.65, Half Roan $0.80. 

Key to AHN'S Rudiments of the German Language. By Dr. P. Henn. Bds. $0.25. 

AHN'S Third German Book. By Dr. P. Henn. Boards $0.45, Half Roan $0.60. 

Key to AHN'S Third German Book. By Dr. P. Henn. Boards $0.25. 

AHN'S Fourth German Book. By Dr. P. Henn. Boards $0.60, Half Roan $0.80. 

Key to AHN'S Fourth German Book. By Dr. P. Henn. Boards $0.25. 

AHN'S Rudiments of the German Language. By Dr. P. Henn. Second Course 
{Ahn-Henn's Third and Fourth German Books together^. Boards $1.00, Half 
Roan $1 25. 

AHN'S Complete Method of the German Language. By Dr. P. Henn. (Ahn- 
Henn's First, Second, Third, and Fourth German Books together . Strongly 
bound in Half Roan $1.75. 

AHN'S First German Reader. With Notes and Vocabulary. By Dr. P. Henn. 
Boards $0.60, Half Roan $0.80.— The same. With Foot-notes and. Vocabulary. Boards 
$0.60, Half Roan $0.80.— Key to same. Boards $0.30. 

AHN'S Second German Reader. With Notes and Vocabulary. By Dr. P. Henn. 
— The same. With Foot-notes and Vocabulary. — Key to same. In press. 

AHN'S Rudiments of the German Language. (Old Edition of 1870.) Boards $0.35. 

AHN'S Method of Learning the German Language. Revised by Gustavus Fischer. 
First Course, Boards $0.50. Second C, Boards $0.50. Both together, Half Roan $1.00. 

Key to AHN'S Method by G. Fischer. Boards $0.30. 

AHN'S New Practical and Easy Method of Learning the German Language., 
With Pronunciation by J. C. Oehlschlaeger. Revised Edition. With many Reading 
Exercises in German Script.) First Course (Practical Part , Boards $0.60: Second 
Course (Theoretical Part), Boards $0.40. Both together, Boards $1.00, Half Roan $1.25. 

AHN'S First German Reader. With Notes by W. Grauert. Boards $0.50. — 
Second German Reader. With Notes and Vocabulary by W. Grauert. Boards $0.70. 
—The two Readers bound together, Half Roan $1.20. 

Key to AHN-GRAUERT'S First German Reader. Bds. $0.30, to Second G. R. $0.35. 

AHN'S German Handwriting. With Notes by W. Grauert. Boards $0.40. 

AHN'S Manual of German Conversation. Revised by W. Grauert. Cloth $1.00. 

GRAUERT'S Manual of the German Language. First Part, Boards $0.40; Second 
Part, Boards $0.40. Both together, Boards $0.70; Half Roan $0.90. 

REFFELT'S First Book for School and House. (For instruction in Reading, 
Writing, Drawing, and Arithmetic. In German. With Vocabulary of all German 
words. For use in American Schools, i Boards $0.30. 

REFFELT'S Second Book for School and House. (In German. With Vocabu- 
lary of the German words in the first division of the BookJ Boards $0.50. 

SOHLEGEL'S German Grammar for Beginners. Half Roan $1.25. 

SCHLEGEL'S Series of Classical Get-man Readers. Part First. TJte First Clas- 
sical German Reader. With Notes and Vocabulary. Half Roan $1.00.— Part Second. 
The Second Classical German Reader. With Notes and Vocabulary. Half 
Roan $1.50. 

E. Steiger, 23 «fc 24 KVankfort St.. IVew York- 



Steiger's German Series. 






s Ma ri a 



the glass /^ the physician ^r 



bag Sfleffer ber ©anb bie 9tofe ber gitrfi 

the knife the sand the rose the prince 


ber %*\ fcr 

the plate 


ha van 

thereon 


bie ©e fcbteb te Dor fcer 

the history before 


bicfcr 

biefcS 

bieicm 
bielcn 
ber £>irt 
bie Jpirtcit 


ber 2>O0,el 
bie 3>ogeI 
ba$ £orf 
bie Xorfer 
ber ettiht 
bie @ttil)le 


id) babe roir baben 
bu baft ibr babt 
er §at fie babcn 

Itegen tag getegen 
trcffen traf getroffen 



Samt>le of Type used in the ABX-HEXX German Course. 



Steiger's French Series. 

AHN'S French Primer. By Dr. P. HENN. Boards $0.25. (Great care has been 
bestowed upon the typographical execution of this little book, the perplexing 
difficulty of the silent letters being alleviated by the use of distinguishing 

©TJHttMlSKB and hairline type.) 

AHN'S French Beading Clmrts. 20 Plates with Hand-book for Teachers. By Dr. 
P. HENN. $1.00. .These Wall Charts are printed in very large type, the sitenHetters 



being shown by (5)lUllp Ulffit® type cut expressly for the purpose.) 

The same. The 20 Plates mounted on 10 boards. $3.75. 

The same. Mounted on 10 boards and varnished. $5.00. 

(AHN'S French Primer and French Beading Charts may be advanta- 
geously used as an introductory course to any French Grammar.) 

AHN'S Practical and Easy Method of Learning the French Language. By 
Dr. P. HENN. First Course. (Comprising a fundamental. Treatise on French 
Pronunciation, French and English Exercises, Paradigms, and Vocabularies.) 
Boards $0.40. 

Ke*/ to same. Boards $0.25. 

AHN'S Practical and Easy Method of Learning tlie French Language. By 
Dr. P. HENN. Second Course. (Comprising a Series of French and English Exer- 
cises, Conversations, Elements of French Grammar with Index, and full Vocab- 
ularies.) Boards $0.60. 

Key to same. Boards $0.25. 

AHN'S Practical and Easy Method of Learning tlie French Language. By 
Dr. P. HENN. First and Second Course, bound together. Half Roan. $1.00. 

AHN'S First French Reader. With Notes and Vocabulary. By Dr. P. HENN. 
Boards $0.60. 

AHN'S First French Reader. With Foot-notes and Vocabulary. "By Dr. P7HENN. 
Boards $0.60. 

These two editions of one and the same book differ solely in the typographical 
arrangement of Text and Notes. In the former the Notes are given separately on 
the pages following the 75pieces of Text; in the latter each page has at its bottom 
exactly so much of the Notes as is needed to explain the French Text above. In 
respect to Vocabulary, etc., both editions are alike. 

Key to AHN'S First French Reader. By Dr. P. HENN. Boards $0.30. 

AHN'S Second French Reader. With Notes and Vocabulary. By Dr. P. HENN. 
In press. 

Key to AHN'S Second French Reader, By Dr. P. HENN. In press. 

AHN'S Manual of French Conversation. In press. 

AHN'S French Letter-writer. With Examples of commercial correspondence, 
business-forms, and book-keeping. In press. 

COLLEGIATE COURSE. 

C. A, SCHLEGEL. A French Grammar. Part First. For beginners. Half 
Roan. $1.50. 

Part Second. For advanced pupils. In preparation. 

A Classical French Reader. With Notes and Vocabulary. Part First. Half 

. Roan. $1.20. 

— Part Second. In preparation. 

Part Third. In preparation. 

E. Steiger, 22 & 24 Frankfort Street, New York. 



Steiger's French Series. 



abe 

il n'e 




6 6 6 6 il est six flueures 

f v 1 r 



i-lest-si-zheu-res 

it is six o'clock 



L'heure a soixante minutes. Ce fruit est raur. 

The hour has sixty minutes. This fruit is ripe. 

je parlais, / spoke, nous parlions, we spoke, 

tu parlais, thou spokest, vous parliez, you spoke, 
il parlait, he spoke, ils parlaient, they spoke. 

141. The relative quoi is used in the sense of what (thing), or that 
(thing) which, but not otherwise than after a preposition; if a nominative or 
an accusative is required, ce qui or ce que is used instead; as: 

Sample of Type used in the AHN-HENN French Cotirse- 



